语言学导论课后习题答案Word文档下载推荐.doc

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nSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.

nOthermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.

nThedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.

nFreemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes（prefixesandsuffixes）.

lInflexionalandderivationalmorphemes

nInflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.

nDerivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.

uEnglishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.

uSomelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.

uTheprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.

lConclusion:

classificationofmorphemes

nMorphemes

uFreemorphemes

uBoundmorphemes

lInflexional

lDerivational:

affixes

nPrefixes:

-s,-’s,-er,-est,-ing,-ed,-s

nSuffixes

lFormationofnewwords

nDerivation

uDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.

uSincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.

uDerivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.

uDerivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.

uSomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.

nCompounding

uCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.

uThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.

uIncompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.

uThemeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.

nConversion

uConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.

uConversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.

nClipping

uClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.

uClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.

uSomeclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus（omnibus）,vet（veterinarian）,gym（gymnasium）,fridge（refrigerator）andfax（facsimile）arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.

nBlending

uBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog（smoke+frog）,brunch（amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch）,motel（motor+hotel）.Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”（akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike）.

nBack-formation

uBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-（far）totherootvision（viewing）.Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.

nAcronymsandabbreviations

uAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.

uAcronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.

uThistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.

nEponyms

uEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.

nCoinage

uCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.

uThiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.

nFormoredetailedexplanationtothewaysofwordformation,seemynotesofPracticalEnglishGrammar.

转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：

Chapter3Phonology

lWhatisphonology?

nPhonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.

nPhonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.

nPhonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.

uWhatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?

uWhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?

uWhatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?

lPhonemesandallophones

nAphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.

nThevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.

nWeuseallophonestorealizephonemes.

lDiscoveringphonemes

nContrastivedistribution–phonemes

uIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.

uTypicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.

lAminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.

lMinimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.

uTheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.

uSomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.

nComplementarydistribution–allophones

uSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

uIfsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.

nFreevariation

uIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.

lDistinctiveandnon-distinctivefeatures

nFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.

nDistinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.

lPhonologicalrules

nPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.

nWhatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.

nTheregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.

nTherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.

l[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_

l[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_

lSyllablestructure

nAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.

nEverysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.

nThenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.

lSequenceofphonemes

nNativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogether.

nSomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish.Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.

nSequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalgaps.

nWhennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.

lSuprasegmentalfeatures

nFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.

nThesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.

nStress

uStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.

uStressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.

uIfawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.

uInsomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.

nIntonation

uWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexp