经济类文献翻译国际商务谈判Word下载.docx

经济类文献翻译国际商务谈判Word下载.docx

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PervezGhauri&

Jean-ClaudeUsunier

Whentwopeoplecommunicate,theyrarelytalkaboutpreciselythesamesubject,foreffectivemeaningisflavoredbyeachperson’sowncognitiveworldandculturalconditioning.Negotiationistheprocessbywhichatleasttwopartiestrytoreachanagreementonmattersofmutualinterest.Thenegotiationprocessproceedsasaninterplayofperception,informationprocessing,andreaction,allofwhichturnonimagesofreality（accurateornot）,onimplicitassumptionsregardingtheissuebeingnegotiated,andonanunderlyingmatrixofconventionalwisdom,beliefs,andsocialexpectations.Negotiationsinvolvetwodimensions:

amatterofsubstanceandtheprocess.Thelatterisrarelyamatterofrelevancewhennegotiationsareconductedwithinthesameculturalsetting.Onlywhendealingwithsomeonefromanothercountrywithadifferentculturalbackgrounddoesprocessusuallybecomeacriticalbarriertosubstance;

insuchsettingsprocessfirstneedstobeestablishedbeforesubstantivenegotiationscancommence.Thisbecomesmoreapparentwhenthenegotiationprocessisinternational,whenculturaldifferencesmustbebridged.

Whennegotiatinginternationally,thistranslatesintoanticipatingculturallyrelatedideasthataremostlikelytobeunderstoodbyapersonofagivenculture.Discussionsarefrequentlyimpededbecausethetwosidesseemtobepursuingdifferentpathsoflogic;

inanycrossculturalcontext,thepotentialformisunderstandingandtalkingpasteachotherisgreat.Negotiatinginternationallyalmostcertainlymeanshavingtocopewithnewandinconsistentinformation,usuallyaccompaniedbynewbehavior,socialenvironments,andevensightsandsmells.Thegreatertheculturaldifferences,themorelikelybarrierstocommunicationandmisunderstandingsbecome.Whenonetakestheseeminglysimpleprocessofnegotiationsintoacross-culturalcontext,itbecomesevenmorecomplexandcomplicationstendtogrowexponentially.Itisnaiveindeedtoventureintointernationalnegotiationwiththebeliefthat“afterall,peopleareprettymuchalikeeverywhereandbehavemuchaswedo.”Eveniftheywearthesameclothesyoudo,speakEnglishaswellas（orevenbetterthan）you,andprefermanyofthecomfortsandattributesofAmericanlife（food,hotels,sports）,itwouldbefoolishtoviewamemberofanothercultureasabrotherinspirit.Thatnegotiationstyleyouusesoeffectivelyathomecanbeineffectiveandinappropriatewhendealingwithpeoplefromanotherculturalbackground;

infactitsusecanoftenresultinmoreharmthangain.Heightenedsensitivity,moreattentiontodetail,andperhapsevenchangesinbasicbehavioralpatternsarerequiredwhenworkinginanotherculture.

Membersofoneculturemayfocusondifferentaspectsofanagreement（e.g.,legal,financial）thanmaymembersofanotherculture（personal,relationships）.Theimplementationofabusinessagreementmaybestressedinoneculture,whiletherangeandpreventionofpracticalproblemsmaybeemphasizedinanotherculture.Insomecultures,theattentionofpeopleisdirectedmoretowardthespecificdetailsoftheagreement（documentingtheagreement）,whileotherculturesmayfocusonhowthepromisescanbekept（processandimplementation）.Americansnegotiateacontract;

theJapanesenegotiateapersonalrelationship.Cultureforcespeopletoviewandvaluedifferentlythemanysocialinteractionsinherentinfashioninganyagreement.Negotiationscaneasilybreakdownbecauseofalackofunderstandingoftheculturalcomponentofthenegotiationprocess.Negotiatorswhotakethetimetounderstandtheapproachthattheotherpartiesarelikelytouseandtoadapttheirownstylestothatonearelikelytobemoreeffectivenegotiators.

AmericanandRussianpeoplearenotsimilar;

theirethicalattitudesdonotcoincide:

theyevaluatebehaviordifferently.WhatanAmericanmayconsidernormative,positivebehavior（negotiatingandreachingacompromisewithanenemy）,aRussianperceivesasshowingcowardice,weakness,andunworthiness;

theword“deal”hasastrongnegativeconnotation,eventodayincontemporaryRussia.Similarly,forRussians,compromisehasnegativeconnotation;

principlesaresupposedtobeinviolableandcompromiseisamatterofintegrity（TheRussiansarenotalonehere:

aMexicanwillnotcompromiseasamatterofhonor,dignity,andintegrity;

likewise,anArabfearslossofmanlinessifhecompromises.）Anegotiationistreatedasawholewithoutconcessions.AttheStrategicArmsLimitationTalks（SALT）talks,theAmericansthoughttheyhadanagreement（meaningconclusivecommitment）,whiletheRussianssaiditwasanunderstanding（meaninganexpressionofmutualviewpointorattitude）.WhentheAmericansthoughttheyhadanunderstanding,theRussianssaiditwasaproceduralmatter,meaningtheyhadagreedtoaprocessforconductingthenegotiation.Differentculturalsystemscanproducedivergentnegotiatingstyles--stylesshapedbyeachnation’sculture,geography,history,andpoliticalsystem.Unlessyouseetheworldthroughtheother’seyes（nomatterhowsimilartheyappeartoyou）,youmaynotbeseeingorhearingthesame.Noonecanusuallyavoidbringingalonghisorherownculturalassumptions,images,andprejudicesorotherattitudinalbaggageintoanynegotiatingsituation.Thewayonesucceedsincrossculturalnegotiationsisbyfullyunderstandingothers,usingthatunderstandingtoone’sownadvantagetorealizewhateachpartywantsfromthenegotiations,andtoturnthenegotiationsintoawin-winsituationforbothsides.Afewpotentialproblemsoftenencounteredduringacross-culturalnegotiationinclude（Frank,1992）:

Insufficientunderstandingofdifferentwaysofthinking.

Insufficientattentiontothenecessitytosaveface.

Insufficientknowledgeofthehostcountry--includinghistory,culture,government,statusofbusiness,imageofforeigners.

Insufficientrecognitionofpoliticalorothercriteria.

Insufficientrecognitionofthedecision-makingprocess.

Insufficientunderstandingoftheroleofpersonalrelationsandpersonalities.

Insufficientallocationoftimefornegotiations.

Overtwo-thirdsofU.S.-Japanesenegotiationeffortsfaileventhoughbothsideswanttoreachasuccessfulbusinessagreement（TheU.S.DepartmentofCommerceisevenmorepessimistic;

itestimatesthatforeverysuccessfulAmericannegotiationwiththeJapanese,therearetwenty-fivefailures.）Infact,thesenumbersholdtrueformostcross-culturalmeetings.Oftenbarrierstoasuccessfulagreementareofaculturalnatureratherthanofaneconomicalorlegalnature.Sinceeachsideperceivestheotherfromitsownethnocentricbackgroundandexperience,oftenneithersidefullycomprehendswhythenegotiationsfailed.Itispreciselythislackofknowledgeconcerningthecultureandthe“alien”and“unnatural”expectationsoftheothersidethathinderseffectivenegotiationwiththosefromanotherculture.

Incross-culturalnegotiations,manyoftherulestaughtanduseddomesticallymaynotapply--especiallywhentheymaynotbeculturallyacceptabletotheotherparty.FormostWesternnegotiatorsthisincludestheconceptsofgiveandtake,ofbargaining,andevenofcompromise.Thestereotypical,commonWesternidealofapersuasivecommunicator--highlyskilledindebate,abletoovercomeobjectionswithverbalflair,anenergeticextrovert--mayberegardedbymembersofotherculturesasunnecessarilyaggressive,superficial,insincere,evenvulgarandrepressive.TootherAmericans,thevaluedAmericantraitsofdirectnessandfranknessshowevidenceofgoodintentionsandpersonalconvictions.ToanAmericanitiscomplimentarytobecalledstraightforwardandaggressive.Thisisnotnecessarilyso,however,formembersofothercultures.Todescribeapersonas“aggressive”isaderogatorycharacterizationtoaBritishcitizen.TotheJapanese,thoseverysametraitsindicatelackofconfidenceinone’sconvictionsandinsincerity.Instead,termssuchasthoughtful,cooperative,considerate,andrespectfulinstillpositivesintheJapaneseandmanyAsiancultures.

Domestically,thestudyofnegotiationtendstoencompassbusinessrelationshipsbetweenparties,tactics,bargainingstrategies,contingencypositions,andsoon.However,inacross-culturalcontext,besidestheusualrulesofnegotiation,onehastobewaryoffinenuancesinrelationshipsandpracticesandhowtheyareperceivedandexecutedbymembersoftheotherculture.Thetwobusinessnegotiatorsareseparatedfromeachothernotonlybyphysicalfeatures,atotallydifferentlanguage,andbusinessetiquette,butalsobyadifferentwaytoperceivetheworld,todefinebusinessgoals,toexpressthinkingandfeeling,toshoworhidemotivationandinterests.Fromtheotherparty’sperspective,forexample,tosomeculturesAmericansmayappearaggressiveandrude,whiletoothers,thoseverysameAmericansappearcalmanduninterested.

1TheArtofNegotiations

Theword“negotiations”stemsfromtheRomanwordnegotiarimeaning“tocarryonbusiness”andisderivedfromtheLatinrootwordsneg（not）andotium（easeorleisure）.ObviouslyitwasastruefortheancientRomansasitisformostbusinesspersonsoftodaythatnegotiationsandbusinessinvolveshardwork.Amoderndefinitionofnegotiationistwoormorepartieswithcommon（andconflicting）interestswhoenterintoaprocessofinteractionwiththegoalofreachinganagreement（preferablyofmutualbenefit）.JohnKennethGalbraithsaid“Sexapart,negotiationisthemostcommonandproblematicinvolvementofonepersonwithanother,andthetwoactivi