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Confirmationbias:
Atendencytoattachmoreweighttoconsiderationsthatsupportourviews.
Heuristic:
Aruleofthumbemployedunconsciouslybypeoplewhentheyestimateprobabilities.Inpsychology,thefieldknownas“heuristicsandbiases”wasoriginatedbyDanielKahnemanandAmosTversky.
Availabilityheuristic:
Unconsciouslyassigningaprobabilitytoatypeofeventonthebasisofhowoftenonethinksofeventsofthattype.
Falseconsensuseffect:
Assumingthattheviewsheldbymembersofourgroupareheldbysocietyatlarge
Bandwagoneffect:
Anunconscioustendencytomodifyone'
sviewstomakethemconsonantwiththoseofotherpeople.
Negativitybias:
Anunconscioustendencytogivemoreweighttonegativeevaluationsthantopositiveevaluations.
Lossaversion:
Beingmorestronglymotivatedtoavoidalossthantoaccrueagain.
In-groupbias:
Apredispositiontofindfaultwithoutsiders.
Fundamentalattributionerror:
Atendencytoattributethemistakesofmembersofthein-grouptoextenuatingcircumstances,whileattributingthesamemistakeswhenmadebymembersofout-groupstocharacterdefects
Obediencetoauthority:
Thetendencytocomplywithinstructionsfromanauthorityevenwhentheyconflictwithourvalues.
Overconfidenceeffect:
Atendencytooverestimatethepercentageofcorrectanswerswehavegiventoquestionsonasubjectwearenotexpertsabout.
Better-than-averageillusion:
Whenamajorityofagroupestimatestheyarebetteratsomethingthanamajorityofthegroup,thegroupissaidtobesubjecttothisillusion.Whenthemajorityofagroupestimatestheyareworseatsomethingthanamajorityofgroup,theyaresaidtobesubjecttothe“worsethanaverageillusion.”
Recap
Claim:
Whenabelief(judgment,opinion)isassertedinadeclarativesentence,theresultisaclaim,statement,orassertion.
•Objectiveclaimvs.subjectiveclaim:
Anobjectiveclaimistrueorfalseregardlessofwhetherpeoplethinkitistrueorfalse.Claimsthatlackthispropertyaresaidtobesubjective.
•“Factvs.opinion”:
Peoplesometimesrefertotrueobjectiveclaimsas“facts,”andusetheword“opinion”todesignateanyclaimthatissubjective.
•“Factualclaim”:
Anobjectiveclaim.Sayingthataclaimis“factual”isnotthesameassayingitistrue.Afactualclaimissimplyaclaimwhosetruthdoesnotdependonourthinkingitistrue.
•Moralsubjectivism:
Moralsubjectivismistheideathatmoraljudgmentsaresubjective.“Thereisnothingeithergoodorbadbutthatthinkingmakesitso.”
•Issue:
Aquestion.
•Argument:
Anargumentconsistsoftwoparts—onepartofwhich(thepremiseorpremises)isintendedtoprovideareasonforacceptingtheotherpart(theconclusion).
•“Argument”:
Peoplesometimesusethiswordtoreferjusttoanargument'
spremise.
•Argumentsandissues:
Theconclusionofanargumentstatesapositionontheissueunderconsideration.
•Cognitivebias:
Afeatureofhumanpsychologythatskewsbeliefformation.Theonesdiscussedinthischapterincludethefollowing:
◇Beliefbias:
Evaluatingreasoningbyhowbelievableitsconclusionis.
◇Confirmationbias:
◇Availabilityheuristic:
Assigningaprobabilitytoaneventbasedonhoweasilyorfrequentlyitisthoughtof.
◇Falseconsensuseffect:
Assumingouropinionsandthoseheldbypeoplearoundusaresharedbysocietyatlarge.
◇Bandwagoneffect:
Thetendencytoalignourbeliefswiththoseofotherpeople.
◇Negativitybias:
Attachingmoreweighttonegativeinformationthantopositiveinformation.
◇Lossaversion:
◇In-groupbias:
Asetofcognitivebiasesthatmakeusviewpeoplewhobelongtoourgroupdifferentlyfrompeoplewhodon'
t.
◇Fundamentalattributionerror:
Havingoneunderstandingofthebehaviorofpeopleinthein-groupandanotherforpeoplenotinthein-group.
◇Obediencetoauthority:
Atendencytocomplywithinstructionsfromanauthority.
◇Overconfidenceeffect:
Acognitivebiasthatleadsustooverestimatewhatpercentageofouranswersonasubjectarecorrect.
◇Better-than-averageillusion:
Aself-deceptioncognitivebiasthatleadsustooverestimateourownabilitiesrelativetothoseofothers.
•Truth:
Aclaimistrueifitisfreefromerror.
•Knowledge:
Ifyoubelievesomething,haveanargumentbeyondareasonabledoubtthatitisso,andhavenoreasontothinkyouaremistaken,youcanclaimyouknowit.
Unit2
Notes:
Premise:
Theclaimorclaimsinanargumentthoughttosupportordemonstrateaconclusion.
Conclusion:
Inanargument,theclaimthoughttobesupportedordemonstratedbyanotherclaim(orclaims)referredtoasthepremise(orpremises).
Validargument:
Anargumentsuchthatitwouldbeself-contradictorytomaintainthattheconclusionisfalseandthepremise(orpremises)aretrue.
Soundargument:
Avalidargumentwhosepremisesaretrue
Stronger/weakerarguments:
Themorelikelythepremiseofaninductiveargumentmakestheconclusion,thestrongertheargument,andthelesslikelyitmakestheconclusion,theweakertheargument.
Balanceofconsiderationsreasoning:
Tryingtodeterminewhichconsiderations,bothforandagainstthinkingordoingsomething,carrythemostweight.
InferencetotheBestExplanation(IBE):
Anargumentwhoseconclusionstatesthemostlikelycauseofsomething.
Argumentsalwayshavetwoparts,apremise(orpremises)andaconclusion.
Thesamestatementcanbeapremiseinoneargumentandaconclusioninasecondargument.
Thetwofundamentaltypesofreasoningaredeductivedemonstrationandinductivesupport.
Adeductiveargumentisusedtodemonstrateorproveaconclusion,whichitdoesifitissound.
Anargumentissoundifitisvalidanditspremise(orpremises)istrue.
Anargumentisvalidifitisn'
tpossibleforitspremiseorpremisestobetrueanditsconclusiontobefalse.
Aninductiveargumentisusedtosupportratherthantodemonstrateaconclusion.
Anargumentsupportsaconclusionifitincreasesthelikelihoodthattheconclusionistrue.
Supportisamatterofdegrees:
Anargumentsupportsaconclusiontotheextentitspremise(orpremises)makestheconclusionlikely.
Anargumentthatoffersmoresupportforaconclusionissaidtobestrongerthanonethatofferslesssupport;
thelatterissaidtobeweakerthantheformer.
Someinstructorsusetheword“strong”inanabsolutesensetodenoteinductiveargumentswhosepremise(orpremises)makestheconclusionmorelikelythannot.
Ifitdoesn'
tmakesensetothinkofanargumentasprovidingevidenceorsupportforacontention,itisprobablybecauseitisadeductiveargument.
Inductiveargumentsanddeductiveargumentscanhaveunstatedpremises.
Whetheranargumentisdeductiveorinductivemaydependonwhattheunstatedpremiseissaidtobe.
Ifanargumentiswritten,diagrammingitmayhelpyouunderstandit.
Balanceofconsiderationsreasoningofteninvolvesdeductiveandinductiveelements.
Inferencetobestexplanationisacommontypeofinductivereasoninginwhichtheconclusionexplainsthecauseofsomething.
Unit3
Vagueness:
Aconceptisvagueifwecannotsaywithcertaintywhatitincludesandwhatitexcludes.
Ambiguity:
Havingmorethanonemeaning.Anambiguousclaimisonethatcanbeinterpretedinmorethanonewayandwhosemeaningisnotmadeclearbythecontext.SeealsoSemanticambiguity;
Syntacticambiguity.
Groupingambiguity:
Akindofsemanticambiguityinwhichitisunclearwhetheraclaimreferstoagroupofthingstakenindividuallyorcollectively
.Ambiguouspronounreference:
Astatementorphraseinwhichitisnotcleartowhatortowhomapronounissupposedtorefer.
Generality:
Lackofdetailorspecificity.ThemoredifferentkindsofXstowhichthewordforXsapplies,themoregeneralthatwordis.
Precisingdefinition:
Adefinitionwhosepurposeistoreducevaguenessorgeneralityortoeliminateambiguity.
Stipulativedefinition:
Adefinition(ofaword)thatisspecifictoaparticularcontext.
Rhetoricaldefinition:
Apseudo-definitiongiventoexpressourfeelingsorinfluencesomeoneelse'
s.
Emotivemeaning:
Thepositiveornegativeassociationsofanexpression;
anexpression'
srhetoricalforce.
Rhetoricalforce:
SeeEmotivemeani
Definitionbyexample:
Pointingto,naming,orotherwiseidentifyingoneormoreexamplesofthetermbeingdefined;
alsocalledostensivedefinition.
Ostensivedefinition:
SeeDefinitionbyexample.
Definitionbysynonym:
Givinganotherwordorphrasethatmeansthesamethingasthetermbeingdefined.
Analyticaldefinition:
Specificationofthefeaturesathingmustpossessinorderforthetermbeingdefinedtoapplytoit.