07 名词Word格式.docx

07 名词Word格式.docx

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D.proportion

3.Hehasalonger____thanIhavesohecanclimbbetter.

A.reach

B.leg

C.arm

D.stretch

4.Herface,seeninprofile,wassocalmthatitgavehimnohint.Itstoodoutagainstthelight,framedintheovalofherbonnet,whosepaleribbonswerelikestreamingreeds.Hereyeswiththeirlongcurvinglasheslookedstraightahead:

theywerefullyopen,butseemedalittlenarrowedbecauseofthebloodthatwaspulsinggentlyunderthefineskinofhercheekbones.Therosyfleshbetweenhernostrilswasallbuttransparentinthelight.Shewasincliningherheadtooneside,andthepearlytipsofherwhiteteethshowedbetweenherlips.（Flaubert:

MadameBovary）

Nounsareamongthemostimportantwordsinalanguage,usuallyusedtonameaperson,aplace,anideaorathing（object,activity,qualityandcondition）.Forexample,wehave“engineer”totheonewhoistrainedorprofessionallyengagedintheapplicationofscientificandmathematicalprinciplestopracticalendssuchasthedesign,manufacture,andoperationofefficientandeconomicalstructures,machines,processes,andsystems.And“engine”isusedtodescribethemachinethatconvertsenergyintomechanicalforceormotion.Howabouta“palace”and“attention”?

Thenounphraseisthatwithanounasitsheadwhichdeterminesthewaythenounphraseisorganized.

Theword“access”inthefollowingsentenceshouldattractyourattention:

Withthegradualimprovementoftransportationandcommunications,farmershavenowhadeasieraccesstocitiesandtowns.

1.Classifications

Traditionalgrammarrecognizedthattherewerenounsofdifferentkinds,anddefinedthem–asitdidnounsasawhole–onnotionalgrounds.Atypicalclassificationwasintocommonnouns（subdividedintoabstractandconcrete）,propernouns（i.e.names）andcollectivenouns.Buttheabstract-concretedistinctioncanbedifficulttoapply（Whichislaughteroralaugh?

）andtheclassificationasawholeisnotareliableguidetogrammaticalusage.Moderngrammarthereforemakesformaldistinctions.Twoofthelabels（properandcollective）areretained,butredefinedinstrictlyformalterms,whilethemajordivisionisintocountandmass.Nounsthatcantakepluralarecalledcountnouns,forexample:

alaughandlaughs.Nounsthatcannottakepluralarecalledmassnouns:

laughter.Thetermmassispreferredtouncountable,becausethelatterisusedambiguously.Sometimesitisusedasasynonymformassandsometimesitincludeswordswhicharepluralonly,thoughsomeofthesearecountable:

threepeople.Anotherconfusinglabelisunitnoun.Somegrammariansusethetermasasynonymforcountnouns.Othersrestrictitsusetonounsthatdenoteunitsofmass:

abladeofgrassandabitofstring.

Accordingtowordformation,wehavesimple,compoundandderivativenouns.Asimplenounisanounthatcontainsonlyonefreemorpheme.Acompoundnounisonethatiscomposedoftwoormoremorphemes（mostlyfreemorphemes）.Aderivativenounisthatcomingfromaverb,anadjectiveorasimplenounwithaffix.

Accordingtothelexicalmeaning,nounsfallintotwomajorcategories:

propernounsandcommonnouns.Apropernounisthatusedforasingleparticularperson,placeorthing,andspeltwithacapitalinitialletter.Thisisobviouslyanotionallabel,butmanynamesforpeopleandplacesdobehavedifferentlyfromothernounsingrammaticalways.Theythereforeconstituteaformalcategory.Butnoticethatonstrictlyformalgrounds,whileweincludewordslikeAmerica,weshouldexcludeAmerican,whichbehaveslikeacommoncountablenoun（TheyareAmericans）orlikeanadjective（HeisAmerican）.Acommonnounisanamecommontoaclassofpeople,thingsorabstractideas.Commonnounscanbefurtherclassifiedintoindividual,collective,materialandabstractnouns.However,thecollectivenounisalsoausefullabelforasmallgroupofcommonnouns,forexample:

armyandcommittee,whichgrammaticallybehavedifferentlyfromothernouns.Butsinceweareusingthetermformally,wemustexcludewordsthatareonlynotionallycollective,forexample:

people.Somepropernouns,forexampleArsenalmayalsofunctionlikecollectives.

Sotheredefinedcategoriesarenotmutuallyexclusive,assomewordsoverlap.Inaddition,manynouns,whatevertheirprimarycategory,havepotentialforswitchingcategoriesandbeingusedinanotherway.

2.Number

Numberisagrammaticalcategorythatindicatesthechangeintheformofnounsandverbs,dependingonwhetheroneormorethanoneistalkedabout.Itisoneoftheimportantcriteriaindistinguishingclassesofnouns.Somearevariableintermsofnumber,andsomeareusuallynot.Variablenounsarebasicallypredictableinthederivationofthepluralfromthesingular,withonlyafewexceptions,mostofwhichareborrowedfromotherlanguages.Englishhasalotofnounsthatarealmostalwayssingularorplural.Theyareassignedtothecategoriesofsingularorplural,whichissupportedbytheirlackofformalnumbercontrastandbythesubject-verbconcord.Regularpluralforms,i.e.singular+-s/-esending,willbeleftoutfromdiscussion.Ourattentionwillbefocusedonsomemoreproblematicissues,nounsthatareinvariablysingularorpluralandnounsthattakeirregularpluralforms.

1）SingularInvariables

（1）ProperNouns

Propernouns,becauseoftheiruniquereference,arenormallyinvariablesingularsevenwhensomeofthesenounsappearinthepluralform:

TheUnitedStateshastwoofficiallanguages:

EnglishandSpanish.

TheUnitedNationshasitsheadquarterslocatedinNewYork.

However,theNetherlandsandthePhilippinescanbeeithersingularorplural:

TheNetherlandsis/arefamousfortwothings:

tulipsandfootball.

ThePhilippinesis/areanislandcountry.

Therearesomeothergeographicalpropernounswithapluralformwhichareusuallyorexclusivelytreatedasplurals:

theAlps,theRockies,theHighlands,theBalkans,theMaldives,theBermudas,theHimalayas,NiagaraFalls,etc.

Namesofpeoplearegenerallysingularexceptthatreferencepointstoafamily:

TheJonesesarecomingtothepartythisevening.

TheBlacksareawayonholidays.

Orthattwoormorepersonswiththesamenamearepossiblyreferredto:

A:

MayIspeaktoMark,please?

B:

WehavetwoMarkshere.TheyoungMarkortheoldMark?

TheyoungMark,Ithink.

Similarly,propernounscanbeusedcountably,forexample,aMr.Wang,Henrys,twoMPs,threePhDs.Butnotethatnameswithatitleoftenhavetwopluralforms:

Mr.Smith

theMr.Smiths/theMessrsSmith

MissSmith

theMissSmiths/theMissesSmith

Mrs.Smith

theMrs.Smith（s）

Ms.Smith

theMs.Smith（s）

PresidentSmith

thePresidentSmiths/thePresidentsSmith

（2）MassNouns

Massnouns,whetherabstractorconcrete,aregenerallysingular.Theyincludecertainnounsendingin–s,someofwhichareonlyoccasionallyusedasplurals:

（a）nounsin–icsdenotingscience,subjects,etc:

acoustics,athletics,classics,gymnastics,linguistics,mathematics,optics,physics,plastics,politics,statistics,etc.SomeofthesenounsmaybepluralwhenusedinthecommonspeechasinHispolitics（politicalopinions）aredifferentfrommineandHermathematics（abilitytosolvemathematicalproblems）areawful.

（b）nounsin–sdenotingdiseases:

appendicitis,arthritis,bronchitis,diabetes,hepatitis,measles,mumps,rickets,shingles,etc.Someofthesenouns,especiallythelastthree,maybetreatedasplurals.

（c）nounsin–sdenotinggames:

billiards,bowls,darts,dominoes,draughts,skittles,etc.

Somemassnouns,whentheyappearinthepluralform,expressintensity,greatquantityandhavealiteraryflavor:

thesnowsofKilimanjaro,thesandsofSahara,andsailingonthegreatwaters.

Somearecountable,somenot.Countablemassnounsbehavejustlikeindividualnouns,forexample:

team,committee,family.Anuncountablemassnounhasnopluralform.Ifwewanttocounterthenumber,wewillhavetouseakindofindividualnounrelatedsemanticallytoit.Forexample:

Poetry

poem

machinery

Machine

clothing

Garment,coat

furniture

Table,chair

cutlery

knife

equipment

Tool

weaponry

Gun,pistol

foliage

Leaf

correspondence

letter

luggage

Trunk,bag

police

policeman

clergy

Clergyman

2）PluralInvariables

Thefollowingnounsarealmostalwaystreatedasplurals:

（1）namesoftoolsandarticlesofdressconsistingoftwoequalparts:

binoculars,calipers,compasses,flares,forceps,glasses,jeans,pants,pincers,pliers,pyjamas,scales,scissors,shades,shears,shorts,spectacles,suspenders,tights,tongs,trousers,etc.Notethatwhenthesenounsareadjectivalized,theydroptheir–sendings:

atrouserleg,aspectaclecase.

（2）somecollectivenouns:

cattle,clergy（occasionallysingular）,gentry,people,police,vermin,etc.

（3）geographicalnamesofmountainranges,waterfalls,groupsofislands

（4）othernounsendingin–s:

archives,arms,belongings,clothes,congratulations,contents,customs,dregs,earnings,fireworks,funds,goods,greens,lodgings,looks,minutes,oats,outskirts,pains,premises,savings,spirits,stairs,suburbs,surroundings,thanks,tropics,wages,etc.

3）IrregularPlurals

Bydefinition,irregularpluralsareunpredictablefromtheformorcorrespondingsingulars,whichmeansthatgeneralizationisusua