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contentment.Mostlypsychologistshaveconcernedthemselveswithweaknessand
misery.Therearelibrariesfulloftheoriesaboutwhywegetsad,worried,and
angry.Ithasn'
tbeenrespectablesciencetostudywhathappenswhenlivesgo
well.Positiveexperiences,suchasjoy,kindness,altruismandheroism,have
mainlybeenignored.Forevery100psychologypapersdealingwithanxietyor
depression,onlyoneconcernsapositivetrait.
B
Afewpioneersinexperimentalpsychologybuckedthetrend.ProfessorAlice
IsenofCornellUniversityandcolleagueshavedemonstratedhowpositive
emotionsmakepeoplethinkfasterandmorecreatively.Showinghoweasyitisto
givepeopleanintellectualboost,Isendivideddoctorsmakingatricky
diagnosisintothreegroups:
onereceivedcandy,onereadhumanisticstatements
aboutmedicine,onewasacontrolgroup.Thedoctorswhohadcandydisplayedthe
mostcreativethinkingandworkedmoreefficiently.InspiredbyIsenandothers,
Seligmangotstuckin.Heraisedmillionsofdollarsofresearchmoneyand
funded50researchgroupsinvolving150scientistsacrosstheworld.Four
positivepsychologycentresopened,decoratedincheerfulcoloursandfurnished
withsofasandbaby-sitters.Therewereget-togethersonMexicanbeacheswhere
psychologistswouldsnorkelandeatfajitas,thenform"
pods"
todiscuss
subjectssuchaswonderandawe.Athousandtherapistswerecoachedinthenew
science.
C
Butcriticsaredemandinganswerstobigquestions.Whatisthepointof
defininglevelsofhappinessandclassifyingthevirtues?
Aren'
ttheseconcepts
vagueandimpossibletopindown?
Canyoujustifyspendingfundstoresearch
positivestateswhenthereareproblemssuchasfamine,floodandepidemic
depressiontobesolved?
Seligmanknowshisworkcanbebelittledalongside
tritenotionssuchas"
thepowerofpositivethinking"
.Hisplantostopthenew
sciencefloating"
onthewavesofself-improvementfashions"
istomakesureit
isanchoredtopositivephilosophyabove,andtopositivebiologybelow.
D
Andthistakesusbacktoourevolutionarypast.Homosapiensevolved
duringthePleistoceneera(1.8mto10,000yearsago),atimeofhardshipand
turmoil.ItwastheIceAge,andourancestorsenduredlongfreezesasglaciers
formed,thenferociousfloodsastheicemassesmelted.Wesharedtheplanet
withterrifyingcreaturessuchasmammoths,elephant-sizedgroundslothsand
sabre-toothedcats.ButbytheendofthePleistocene,alltheseanimalswere
extinct.Humans,ontheotherhand,hadevolvedlargebrainsandusedtheir
intelligencetomakefireandsophisticatedtools,todeveloptalkandsocial
rituals.Survivalinatimeofadversityforgedourbrainsintoapersistent
mould.ProfessorSeligmansays:
"
Becauseourbrainevolvedduringatimeofice,
floodandfamine,wehaveacatastrophicbrain.Thewaythebrainworksis
lookingforwhat'
swrong.Theproblemis,thatworkedinthePleistoceneera.It
favouredyou,butitdoesn'
tworkinthemodemworld."
E
Althoughmostpeopleratethemselvesashappy,thereisawealthof
evidencetoshowthatnegativethinkingisdeeplyingrainedinthehumanpsyche.
Experimentsshowthatwerememberfailuresmorevividlythansuccesses.Wedwell
onwhatwentbadly,notwhatwentwell.Ofthesixuniversalemotions,four
anger,fear,disgustandsadnessarenegativeandonlyone,joy,ispositive.
Thesixth,surprise,ispsychologistDanielNettle,authorofHappiness,andone
oftheRoyalInstitutionlecturers,thenegativeemotionseachtellus
"
somethingbadhashappened"
andsuggestadifferentcourseofaction.
F
Whatisitaboutthestructureofthebrainthatunderliesourbiastowards
negativethinking?
Andisthereabiologyofjoy?
AtIowaUniversity,
neuroscientistsstudiedwhathappenswhenpeopleareshownpleasantand
unpleasantpictures.Whensubjectsseelandscapesordolphinsplaying,partof
thefrontallobeofthebrainbecomesactive.Butwhentheyareshownunpleasant
imagesabirdcoveredinoil,oradeadsoldierwithpartofhisfacemissing
theresponsecomesfrommoreprimitivepartsofthebrain.Theabilitytofeel
negativeemotionsderivesfromanancientdanger-recognitionsystemformedearly
inthebrain'
sevolution.Thepre-frontalcortex,whichregistershappiness,is
thepartusedforhigherthinking,anareathatevolvedlaterinhuman
history.
G
Ourdifficulty,accordingtoDanielNettle,isthatthebrainsystemsfor
likingandwantingareseparate.Wantinginvolvestwoancientregionsthe
amygdalaandthenucleusaccumbensthatcommunicateusingthechemicaldopamine
toformthebrain'
srewardsystem.Theyareinvolvedinanticipatingthe
pleasureofeatingandinaddictiontodrugs.Aratwillpressabarrepeatedly,
ignoringsexuallyavailablepartners,toreceiveelectricalstimulationofthe
wanting"
partsofthebrain.Buthavingreceivedbrainstimulation,therat
eatsmorebutshowsnosignofenjoyingthefooditcraved.Inhumans,adrug
likenicotineproducesmuchcravingbutlittlepleasure.
H
Inessence,whatthebiologylessontellsusisthatnegativeemotionsare
fundamentaltothehumancondition,andifsnowondertheyaredifficultto
eradicate.Atthesametime,byatrickofnature,ourbrainsaredesignedto
cravebutneverreallyachievelastinghappiness.
Question14-20
ThereadingpassagehassevenparagraphsA-H.
Whichparagraphcontainsthefollowinginformation?
WritethecorrectletterA-H,inboxes14-20onyouranswersheet.
14Anexperimentinvolvingdividingseveralgroupsoneofwhichreceived
positiveicon
15Reviewofapoorlyresearchedpsychologyarea
16Contrastbeingmadeaboutthebrain’sactionasresponsetopositiveor
negativestimulus
17Theskepticalattitudetowardtheresearchseemedtobeawasteof
fund
18asubstancethatproducesmuchwantinginsteadofmuchliking
19aconclusionthatlastinghappinessarehardlyobtainedbecauseofthe
natureofbrains
20Onedescriptionthatlistedthehumanemotionalcategories
Question21-25
CompletethefollowingsummaryoftheparagraphsofReadingPassage,using
nomorethanfourwordsfromtheReadingPassageforeachanswer.
Writeyouranswersinboxes21-25onyouranswersheet.
Afewpioneersinexperimentalpsychologystudywhathappenswhenlivesgo
well.ProfessorAlicedivideddoctors,makingatrickyexperiment,intothree
groups:
besidetheonecontrolgroup,theothertwoeitherareaskedtoread
humanisticstatementsaboutdrugs,orreceived…21...Thelatterdisplayedthe
mostcreativethinkingandworkedmoreefficiently.Sincecriticsare
questioningthesignificanceofthe…22…forbothlevelsofhappinessand
classificationforthevirtues.ProfessorSeligmancounteredinanevolutional
theory:
survivalinatimeofadversityforgedourbrainsintothewayof
thinkingforwhat'
swrongbecausewehavea…23…
Thereisbountifulofevidencetoshowthatnegativethinkingisdeeply
builtinthehumanpsyche.Later,atIowaUniversity,neuroscientistsstudied
theactivepartsinbrainstocontrastwhenpeopleareshownpleasantand
unpleasantpictures.Whenpositiveimageslike…24…areshown,partofthefrontal
lobeofthebrainbecomesactive.Butwhentheyareshownunpleasantimage,the
responsecomesfrom…25…ofthebrain.
Question26
Writeyouranswersinboxes26onyouranswersheet.
Choosethecorrectletter.A,B,CorD.
AccordingtoDanielNettleinthelasttwoparagraphs,whatistrueasthe
scientistscantellusabouthappiness
ABrainsystemsalwaysmixlikingandwantingtogether.
BNegativeemotionscanbeeasilyridofifwethinkpositively.
CHappinessislikenicotinewearecravingforbutgetlittle
pleasure.
DTheinnermechanismofhumanbrainsdoesnotassistustoachievedurable
happiness.