英美合同法讲义.docx

英美合同法讲义.docx

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英美合同法讲义

《ABriefIntroductionToTheAnglo-AmericanLawofContract》

讲义

CHAPTER1INTRODUCTIONTOENGLISHANDAMERICANCONTRACTLAW

第一章导论

Manystudentswronglyimaginethatthelawofcontractisdifficultinthatitwilldealwithcomplicatedcommercialsituations.Theyalsothinkofcontractsascomplicatedwrittendocumentsonlyenteredintoonrareoccasionssuchasacceptingtheofferofajob,rentingorbuyingahouse,orengaginginamajorbusinesstransaction.

Infact,mostofusenterintocontractseverydayandthevastmajorityofthemarelesscomplicated.Buyingabusortrainticket,acupofcoffeeorabookareallexampleofcontractsandwehardlyeverbothertorecordtheseaffairsinwriting,negotiatethemindetail.

Althoughitisusuallyfairlyeasytorecognizeacontractonceformed,itisbynomeanssuchaneasytasktodescribeingeneraltermswhatacontractis.Itisusually,perhapsuniversally,saidthatacontractisalegallyenforceableagreementandthatitisformedbytheprocessof“OfferandAcceptance.”Itisalsosaidthattheagreementmustbesupportedby“consideration”foritisthepresenceofconsiderationthatmakestheagreementenforceable.

Thecontractlawcoursetaughtinthissemesterusuallydealwiththe“generalprinciplesofcontract”.Wewillnotconcernwiththosemoreadvancefieldssuchascontractsofemployment,ofthesaleofgoodsbetweenbusinessandtoconsumers,ofinternationalsales,ofthedisposalorretentionofintellectualpropertyrights,ofshipping,ofinsurance,andofconstructiondeals.

[AimsandRequirements]

ThischapterintroducessomebasictheoryinCommonLawsystemoncontractlaw.ThesectionAbeginsoursurveywiththedefinitionofcontract,whichintroducesanumberofthemesincludingthebasisofcontractandtheconditionsforenforcementofpromises.SectionBpresentsanoverviewofsometheoreticalissuesandprovidessomeverybasicinformationthatoftenemergesinclassonlyincidentallyandmaythereforebemissedbysomestudents.SectionCconcentratesonthedevelopmentofAnglo-Americancontractlawinthepastcentury.Itisusefulforthestudenttounderstandnewcharacteristicsofmoderncontractlaw.

[TimeAllocation]4hour

SECTION

A

B

C

HOUR（S）

2

1

1

Pleasebriefthecaseandprovidemewithacopyofyourbriefatthefirstclass.

SECTIONA．THEMEANINGOF“CONTRACT”ANDBASISOFCONTRACT

第一节合同的定义和合同基础

I.MeaningOfContract

Purposeanddemand

Inthiscertainpartofthechapterwemustcoverthefollowingpurposeanddemands:

thestudentsshouldmasterthedefinitionofContract.Theywillbefamiliarwiththesourcesofcontractlaw.TheunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenEnglandandTheUSAisalsoveryimportant.

Maincontent

I.TheMeaningof“Contract”

Acontractisapromise,orsetofpromise,forbreachofwhichthelawgivesaremedy,ortheperformanceofwhichthelawinsomewayrecognizesasaduty.（RestatementoftheLaw,Second,Contracts,Section1.）

Acontractisdefinedasanexchangerelationshipcreatedbyoralorwrittenagreementbetweentwoormorepersons,containingatleastonepromise,andrecognizedinlawasenforceable.

Brieflyspeaking,a“contract”isanagreement（apromiseorasetofpromise）thatthelawwillenforce.

Acontractisalegallybindingagreementbetweentwoormorepartiesorasetoflegalbindingpromisesmadebyonepartyormore.（SeeG.C.Lindsay,Contract,（3rd,1992）at6~7.）

Althoughthisdefinitionwillnotlikelysatisfyeveryone,itdoesreflecttheessentialelementsthateveryoneseemstoaccept:

II.Sotherearefiveessentialelementsinacontract:

1.Anoralorwrittenagreement

Probably,themostimportantattributeofcontractisthatisavoluntary,consensualrelationship.Acontractiscreatedonlybecausetheparties,actingwithfreewillandintenttobebound,reachagreementontheessentialtermsoftheirrelationship.Itistheelementofagreementthatdistinguishescontractualobligationfrommanyotherkindsoflegalduty,suchastheobligationtocompensatefornegligentinjuryortopaytaxesthatarisebyoperationoflawfromsomeactorevent,withouttheneedforassent.

Althoughagreementbetweenthepartiesisessentialtothecreationofcontract,thequestionofwhatconstituteslegallysufficientagreementcanbedifficult;thequestionisdiscussedindetaillater.Forthepresent,itissufficienttopointoutthatthelawdoesnotdemandaninquiryintothemindsofthepartiestodecidewhethertheyhadformedanactualintenttocontract.Suchaninvestigationintotheactualthoughtsandunderstandingofaparty（calledsubjectiveintent）wouldnotadequatelyprotecttheotherparty’sreasonablerelianceonapparentintent,asportrayedbywordsandconduct.Also,becausetheonlymeansofestablishingthetruestateofmindofapersonisthetestimonyofthatperson,evidenceoftrueintentislikelytobeunreliableandcoloredbyself-interest.Therefore,indecidingwhetherapersonagreedtoacontract,thelawgaugesintentobjectively.Thatis,itevaluatestheperson’sovertacts—wordsandconduct—todecidewhethertheyreasonablysignifiedanintenttoenterthetransaction.

Theconceptofvolitionmustalsobeapproachedwithcaution.Althoughacontractisavoluntaryrelationship,thisdoesnotmeanthatapartymustbecompletelyfreeofallpressureandmustexerciseunfetteredfreewill.Itisinevitableandtolerablethatapartysufferssomedegreeofcompulsionfrompersonalcircumstances,desires,andneeds,andfromexternalmarketforces.However,wherethispressurebecomestoointenseandistakenadvantageofbytheotherparty,itunderminesvolitionandnegatestheapparentaccent.

Thedefinitionalsoindicatesthatagreementmaybeoralorwritten.Underalegalrulecalledthestatuteoffrauds,certainspecifiedcontractsmustberecordedinwritingandsignedtobeenforceable.However,unlessacontractfallswithinthestatuteoffrauds,itisfullybindinginoralform.Itiscommonforbothlaypersonsandlawyerstousetheword“contract”torefertothedocumentsettingoutthetermsoftheagreementthatissignedbytheparties.Strictlyspeaking,thedocumentisnotthecontract,butmerelythememorandumorrecordofthecontract.Thecontractisthelegalrelationshipthatarisesfromtheagreementthatmayormaynotberecordedinawrittenmemorial.

2.Theinvolvementoftwoormorepersons

Aswithtangos,ittakestwotocontract.Thispropositionseemssoself-evidentthatitishardlyworthmentioning.Unlikethetango,however,acontractisnotconfinedtotwoparticipants.Therecanbeasmanypartiestoacontractastheneedsofthetransactiondictate.Infact,multipartycontractsarecommon.

3.Anexchangerelationship

Asmentionedearlier,acontractisarelationship.Byenteringintotheagreement,thepartiesbindthemselvestoeachotherforthecommonpurposeofthecontract.Somecontractualrelationshipslastonlyashorttimeandrequireminimalinteraction.Forexample,acontractforahaircutinvolvesafairlyquickperformancebythehairdresser,followedbythefulfillmentofthecustomer’spaymentobligation.Othercontractualrelationships,suchasleasesorlong-termemploymentorsupplycontracts,couldspanmanyyearsandrequireconstantdealingsbetweentheparties,regulatedbydetailedprovisionsintheagreement.

Theessentialpurposeofthecontractrelationshipisexchange.Itliesattheheartofcontract.Contractandtradegohandinhand:

becausetradingisavitalandindispensablefacetofoursociety,contractlawexiststofacilitateit.

Inotherwords,theveryessenceofcontractisthereciprocalrelationshipinwhicheachpartygivesupsomethingtogetsomething.These“somethings”areasvariedasonecouldimagine:

agoatherdmaypromisetotradeagoattoamillerforasackofflour;aninventormaytradetherightstoherideaforapromisebyamanufacturertodeveloptheideaformutualprofit;afondunclemaypromisehisnephewmoneyinexchangeforanundertakingnottodrink,smoke,andgamble.Thesesituationsvarygreatly.Someinvolvetangiblethings,othersintangiblerights.Someofthepromiseshaveeconomicvalue,othersdonot.Yettheirbasicformatisthesame-abargainhasbeenreachedleadingtoareciprocalexchangeforthebetterment（realorperceived）ofbothparties.

4.Atleastonepromise

Asalreadystressed,contractisarelationship.Iftwopeoplechatforafewminutesatareceptionandthenpartwithnointentionofeverseeingeachotheragain.Theirencounterwouldnotlikelybedescribedasarelationship.Soasforcontract,instantaneousexchanges,eventhoughconsensual,donotconstitutecontracts.Foracontracttoexist,theremustbeapromise-thatis,somecommitmentforthefuture,someassumptionsofliabilitylastingbeyondtheinstantofagreement.Thisisbecauseisneitherpartymakesacommitment,thereisnothingtoenforceandnoneedforthelawofcontractstobeconcernedwiththeexchange.

III.Afewillustrations

Theconceptofpromiseorcommitmentneedsexplanationandrefinement.Apromiseisanundertakingtoactorrefrainfromactinginaspecifiedwayatsomefuturetime.Thispromisemaybemadeinclearandexpresswords,oritcouldbeimplied–thatis,inferredfromconductorfromthecircumstancesofthetransaction.Furthermore,asthedefinitionindicates,onlyonepromiseneedstobemadeforacontracttocomeintoexistence.

Whereattheinstantofcontracting,promisesremainoutstandingonbothsides,thecontractiscalledbilateral.Where,attheinstantofcontracting,onepartyhasfullyperformedandallthatremains