语言学名词解释 合集文档格式.docx
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thestructuralorganizationoflanguageintotwoabstractlevels;
meaningfulunitsandmeaninglesssegments.
Competence:
unconsciousknowledgeofthesystemofgrammaticalrulesinalanguage.Performance:
thelanguageactuallyusedbypeopleinspeakingorwriting.Langue:
thelanguagesystemsharedbya“speechcommunity”.
Parole:
theconcreteutterancesofspeaker.
Morpheme:
thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.
Inflection:
isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixessuchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcasestowhichtheyareattached.
Root:
referstothebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithoutlossofidentity.Stem:
isanymorphemeorcombinationsofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.
Acronym:
ismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.
Syntax:
thestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructure.
Subordination:
theprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.Denotation:
denotationinvolvestherelationshipbetweenalinguisticunitandthenon-linguisticentitiestowhichitrefers.
Connotation:
propertiesoftheentityaworddenote.
Synonymy:
synonymyisthetechnicalnameforoneofthesenserelationsbetweenlinguisticunits,namelythesamenessrelation.
Hyponymy:
thetechnicalnameforinclusivenesssenserelation,isamatterofclassmembership.
Entailment:
Thisalogicrelationshipbetweentwosentencesinwhichthetruthofthesecondnecessarilyfollowsfromthetruthofthefirst,whilethefalsityofthefirstfollowsfromthefalsityofthesecond.Trafficlightdoesnothaveduality.Obviously,itisnotadouble-levelsystem.Thereisonlyone-to-onerelationshipbetweensignsandmeaningbutthemeaningunitscannotbedividedintosmallermeaninglesselementsfurther.Sothetrafficlightonlyhastheprimarylevelandlacksthesecondarylevellikeanimals?
call.
CriticalPeriodHypothesisThecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition语言获得的关键期EricLennebergwasamajorproponent.
Thecriticalperiodhypothesis关键期彳发设Itreferstoaperiodinone'
slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasily,swiftly,andwithoutexplicitinstruction.Itcoincideswiththeprocessofbrainlateralization.Priortothisperiod,bothhemispheresareinvolvedtosomeextentinlanguageandonecantakeoveriftheotherisdamaged.「语言学习关键期」(thecriticalperiod)的争议。
认同「愈早开始学习外语,成效愈好」的人,在学理上常引用「语言学习关键期假说」(TheCriticalPeriodHypothesis)来论证此项观点。
1959年,神经生理学家Penfield和Roberts从大脑可塑性的角度,提出十岁以前,是学习语言的最佳年龄。
哈佛大学心理学教授DavidLenneberg(1967)则从医学临床经验,以「神经生理学的观点」有系统地解释「语言学习关键期」,他认为人的大脑从二岁开始边化(lateralization)[4],在边化完成前,人是用全脑来学习语言,约在青春期左右,大脑会完成边化,从此,语言学习主要由左边大脑负责。
人脑「边化」后的语言学习不如全脑学习时期来得好。
因此,语言学习最好在大脑完成边化之前,这也就是所谓的「语言学习关键期」。
除了Lenneberg夕卜,Bickerton(1981)和Coppieters(1987)的研究结果也倾向支持「语言学习关键期」的存在。
Lenneberg提出「语言学习关键期假说」主要用来解释第一语(母语)的学习。
而ThomasScovel(1969)更将此假说的解释范围扩及第一语以外的语言学习。
acculturationn.文化传入,文化适应Acculturationistheobtainmentofculturebyanindividualoragroupofpeople.Thetermoriginallyappliedonlytotheprocessconcerningaforeignculture,fromtheacculturingoracculturedrecipientpointofview,havingthisforeigncultureaddedandmixedwiththatofhisorheralreadyexistingoneacquiredsincebirth.However,thetermnowhascometomean,inaddition,thechild-acquisitionacculturationofnativeculturesinceinfancyinthehousehold.Achild'
slearningofitsfirstcultureisalsocalledenculturationormerelysocialization.Thetraditionaldefinitionsometimesdifferentiatebetweenacculturationbyanindividual(transculturation)andthatbyagroup,usuallyverylarge(acculturation).Theoldandthenewadditionaldefinitionshaveaboundarythatblursinmodernmulticulturalsocieties,whereachildofanimmigrantfamilymightbeencouragedtoacculturateboththedominantalsowellastheancestralculture,eitherofwhichmaybeconsidered"
foreign"
butinfact,theyarebothintegralpartsofthechild'
sdevelopment.
Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone'
snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard—Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbonII,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,though,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled—rule-boundcreativityII(byN.Chomsky).6.Whatisdisplacement?
uDisplacementII,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn'
tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyforabonetobelost.Thebee'
ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof—displacementII,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.7.Whatisculturaltransmission?
Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit—languageacquisitiondeviceII,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog'
sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf'
sroaring—tongueIIwhenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.8.Whatisinterchangeability?
Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Thoughsomepeoplesuggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot).Whenadogbarks,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)is(are)—speakingIIandwhichlistening.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?
Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix—designfeaturesIIwhichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught—AmericansignLanguageII,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybut
didmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?
Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:
phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:
atoolofcommunication,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,representativeoftheLondonschool,recognizesthree—Macro-FunctionsII:
ideational,interpersonalandtextual.11.Whatisthephaticfunction?
The—phaticfunctionIIreferstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g.—Howareyou?
II—Fine,thanks.II)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'
tsay—HelloIItoafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon'
tanswerhis—HiII,youruinyourfriendship.12.Whatisthedirectivefunction?
The—directivefunctionIImeansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,—Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.IIOthersyntacticstructuresorsentences