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EvolutionaryPathsandFutureAdvances”writtenbyNonakaetal.,2006.
OrganizationalknowledgeCreationTheory
Twofundamentalelementsoforganizationalknowledgecreationtheory:
1.Epistemology
●Knowledgeisjustifiedtruebelief.
●Individualsjustifythetruthfulnessoftheirobservationsbasedontheirobservationsoftheworld.
●Justificationhingesonuniqueviewpoints,personalsensibilityandexperience(NonakaandTakeuchi,1995)
●Knowledgeisembodiedintheindividual,andisthereforehistorydependent,contextsensitive,specific(Varelaetal,1991).
●Knowledgeisthecapacitytodefineasituationandactaccordingly(Stehr,1992,1994;
vonKroghetal,2000).
Knowledgeisorientedtowardsdefiningasituationorproblemsoastoactonit.(Varelaetal,1991;
NewellandSimon1972).
●Knowledgeisexplicitandtacit(Nonaka,1991).
Knowledgeincludesexplicitaspects(suchaslanguageanddocumentation),andtacitaspects(suchasexperienceandskills)
2.KnowledgeConversion
●Knowledgecreationasacontinuousprocess
Knowledgecreationisajourneyfrom“beingtobecoming’(Nonakaetal.,2006).
●Individualsenhancesthecapacitytodefineasituationorproblem,andapplyhisorherknowledgesoastoactandspecificallysolvetheproblem.
●Intheorganization,knowledge‘become’or‘expands’throughafour-stageconversionprocess(‘SECI’).
●Organizationalknowledgecreationasaconstructcomprisingknowledgeconversionbymeansofexternalization,internalization,socializationandcombination(Nonakaetal.,1994).
●Theconceptof‘knowledgeconversion’raisestwoimportantconsiderations.
●Knowledgesystem
●Theknowledgesystemcapturestheorganization’sgloballearning.
●Theoutcomeoforganizationknowledgecreationisre-categorizedandre-contextualizedthisknowledgelayeroftheorganization.
●Theknowledgelayerisembeddedinthecorporatevision(whichoutlinesthefieldsofdevelopmentfortheorganization)andtheorganizationalculture(thatorientsindividuals’choices,mindsets,andactions.
Whereasthecorporatevisionandtheorganizationalcultureprovidetheknowledgebasefromwhichto‘tap’tacitknowledge,technologytapstheexplicitknowledgeintheorganization(NonakaandTakeuchi,1995).
●Theknowledgesystemincorporateswhatistermed‘knowledgemanagementsystems’.
Knowledgemanagementsystemsareoftenequatedwiththeinformationsystemsthatassistknowledgeconversionorinformationprocessesintheorganization.
●Socialjustification
●Theexpansionofknowledgeintheorganizationthroughconversionmakesjustificationasocialprocess.
●Socialjustificationshouldbeunderstoodasamechanismbywhichtheorganizationtradesoffinnovationagainstcostcontainmentinknowledgecreation.
●Knowledgecreationcanberegardedasmovingupthroughdifferentorganizationallevel,fromtheindividualtothecommunitiesandthelargernetworks,anditspanssectional,departmental,divisionalandorganizationalboundaries(Swanetal.,1999).
PathsintheEvolutionofOrganizationalKnowledgeCreation
TheoryandResearch
Thedefinitionofknowledgeandtheconceptofknowledgeconversionpromptedacademicworksonorganization-enablingconditionsandthecontextforknowledgecreation.
1.Organization-EnablingConditionsandBa
●Acentralpurposeoforganizationalknowledgecreationtheoryistoidentifyconditionsenablingknowledgecreationinordertoimproveinnovationandlearning(Nonaka,1994;
NonakaandTakeuchi,1995;
vonKroghetal,2000)
●Organizationalknowledgecreationiscontextdependent.
●Thecontextforknowledgecreationisba(NonakaandKonno,1998).
●Baisasharedspaceforemergingrelationships.
●Toparticipateinbameanstobecomeengagedinknowledgecreation,dialogue,adapttoandshapepractices,andsimultaneouslytranscendone’sownlimitedperspectiveorboundaries.
●Variousbacharacteristicsareparticularlysuitedfortheconversionofknowledge(NonakaandKonno,1998).
Theawarenessofaba’sparticularcharacteristicsandtheirsupportenablesuccessfulknowledgecreation(e.g.NonakaandKonno,1998).
●Organizationalknowledgecreationtheoryepitomizesadynamicview:
Theorganizationmightbeawell-designedengineforinformationprocessing,butmoreimportantly,itassiduouslybecomesacontextinwhichknowledge—engine’sfuel—iscreated.
●Relationshipsamongindividualsinbaimpactorganizationalknowledge’ssynthesisandexpansion.
●knowledgecreationismoreeffectivewhenrelationshipsexhibitahighdegreeofcarefortheother(mutualtrust,activeempathy,accesstohelp,leniencyinjudgement,andcourage),particularlyintheoriginatingbainwhichindividualssharetacitknowledge(vonKrogh1998).
Basedontheconstructofcareasaconditionforknowledgecreation,ZarragaandBonache(2005)developedaframeworkthatlinkedteamatmospheretoknowledgetransferandcreation.Thestudyconfirmedthathigh-carerelationshipsfavourboththetransferandcreationofknowledge.
●Varioustypesofinformationsystemssupportbaandenableorganizationalknowledgecreation(e.g.AlaviandLeidner,2001).
ChouandWang(2003)developedandtestedamodeloforganizationallearningmechanismsandorganizationalinformationmechanismsofcompositeeffectsonorganizationalknowledgecreation.Theyidentifiedseveralwaysinwhichinformationsystemscanfacilitateandsupportba.
2.KnowledgeVisionandActivism
●Theconceptofbahighlightedtwocriticalchallengesfororganizationalknowledgecreationtheory.
●Whetherornottheorganizationissuccessfulatcreatingknowledgehingesonabroadersetoffactorsthanmerelytheknowledgeoutcomeofteamwork(Zarraga&
Bonache,2005;
Swanetal.,1999;
Grant,2001;
Goodall&
Roberts,2003).
Howtheorganizationcoordinatesandsharesknowledgemorebroadlymatters.
●Bamighthaveeithernegative(Zaleznick,1985)orpositiveeffectonknowledgecreationingroups(Nonakaetal.,2006).
●Knowledgeactivism(vonKroghetal.1997,2000)
●Variousformsofknowledgeactivism(e.g.CEO,projectmanager,middle-levelmanager)performsimilarroles:
theycatalyseandcoordinateknowledgecreationandtransfer,andcommunicatefutureprospects.
(i)Asoutsiders,knowledgeactivistsprovidenewinputforknowledgecreation.
knowledgeactivistsbringdifferentknowledgesets,andintroduced ‘creativeabrasion’(Leonard-Barton1995)thatleadstoconflictingideasbutalsonewpossibilitiestocreateknowledge.
(ii)Knowledgeactivistscoordinateandtransferknowledge,byspanningtheboundariesofteamsandcommunities(e.g.Quinnetal.1997,Wenger2000,Newelletal.2002).
(iii)Knowledgeactivistscommunicatefutureprospectsandsoprovideanoveralldirectionforknowledge
●Knowledgevisions
●Duetothedispersednatureororganizationalknowledgecreation,theneedforthecoordinationofteamsandknowledgetransfer,thetheoryoforganizationalknowledgecreationemphasizesthedevelopmentof‘knowledgevisions’(Nonaka&
Takeuchi,1995;
vonKroghetal.,2000;
Nonakaetal.,2005;
Giroux&
Taylor,2002).
●Aknowledgevisionspecifies‘potentialityforbeing’:
thecurrentandfutureorganizationalstate,andthebroadcontoursofknowledgethattheorganizationshouldseekandcreateinordertomovefromthecurrenttothefuturestate(Nonakaetal.(2005).
●Knowledgevisionbothresultfrom,andinspire,conversationsandrhetoricthroughouttheorganizations,and,assuch,theyareimportantresourcestojustifyinvolvementinorganizationalknowledgecreation(seealsoGiroux&
Taylor(2002).
3.OrganizationalForms
●Hedlund(1994)proposedthat‘heterarchy’issuperiortohierarchyasanorganizationalformforknowledgecreation,basedonthe‘Japanesevs.Western’firmformsdichotomy(Hedlund&
Nonaka,1993;
OsterlohandFrey;
2000)
●‘Hypertextorganization’grantedorganizationsthehighcapacityrequiredtosolvecoordinationproblemsinherentinknowledgecreation(Nonaka,1994;
Nanaka&
Takeuchi,1995).
Hypertextorganizationisalayeredstructureofactivities,includingbusinesssystemlayer,andprojectsystemlayer.Thesetwolayersprovidedistinct,purposefulbasfororganizationalknowledgecreationandallowforbothheterarchicalandhierarchicalcoordinationoftheseactivities.
●Theorganizationalformthatbestcoordinatesandenablesknowledgecreationisanamalgamationofthreelayersworkinginparallel:
thebusinesssystem,theprojectsyste