自考英语电子教材下册Word下载.docx

自考英语电子教材下册Word下载.docx

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Choiceistheopportunitytoselectamongalternatives.Ifthereisnochoice，thereisnodecisiontobemade.Decisionmakingistheprocessofchoosing，andmanydecisionshaveabroadrangeofchoice.Forexample，astudentmaybeabletochooseamonganumberofdifferentcoursesinordertoimplementthedecisiontoobtainacollegedegree.Formanagers，everydecisionhasconstraintsbasedonpolicies，procedures，laws，precedents，andthelike.Theseconstraintsexistatalllevelsoftheorganization.

Alternativesarethepossiblecoursesofactionfromwhichchoicescanbemade.Iftherearenoalternatives，thereisnochoiceand，therefore，nodecision.Ifnoalternativesareseen，oftenitmeansthatathoroughjobofexaminingtheproblemshasnotbeendone.Forexample，managerssometimestreatproblemsinaneither/orfashion；

thisistheirwayofsimplifyingcomplexproblems.Butthetendencytosimplifyblindsthemtootheralternatives.

Atthemanageriallevel，decisionmakingincludeslimitingalternativesaswellasidentifyingthem，andtherangeisfromhighlylimitedtopracticallyunlimited.

Decisionmakersmusthavesomewayofdeterminingwhichofseveralalternativesisbest--thatis，whichcontributesthemosttotheachievementoforganizationalgoals.Anorganizationalgoalisanendorastateofaffairstheorganizationseekstoreach.Becauseindividuals（andorganizations）frequentlyhavedifferentideasabouthowtoattainthegoals，thebestchoicemaydependonwhomakesthedecision.Frequently，departmentsorunitswithinanorganizationmakedecisionsthataregoodforthemindividuallybutthatarelessthanoptimalforthelargerorganization.Calledsuboptimization，thisisatrade-offthatincreasestheadvantagestooneunitorfunctionbutdecreasestheadvantagestoanotherunitorfunction.Forexample，themarketingmanagermayargueeffectivelyforanincreasedadvertisingbudget.Inthelargerschemeofthings，however，increasedfundingforresearchtoimprovetheproductsmightbemorebeneficialtotheorganization.

Thesetrade-offsoccurbecausetherearemanyobjectivesthatorganizationswishtoattainsimultaneously.Someoftheseobjectivesaremoreimportantthanothers，buttheorderanddegreeofimportanceoftenvaryfrompersontopersonandfromdepartmenttodepartment.Differentmanagersdefinethesameproblemindifferentterms.Whenpresentedwithacommoncase，salesmanagerstendtoseesalesproblems，productionmanagersseeproductionproblems，andsoon.

Theorderingandimportanceofmultipleobjectivesisalsobased，inpart，onthevaluesofthedecisionmaker.Suchvaluesarepersonal；

theyarehardtounderstand，evenbytheindividual，becausetheyaresodynamicandcomplex.Inmanybusinesssituationsdifferentpeople'

svaluesaboutacceptabledegreesofriskandprofitabilitycausedisagreementaboutthecorrectnessofdecisions.

Peopleoftenassumethatadecisionisanisolatedphenomenon.Butfromasystemspointofview，problemshavemultiplecauses，anddecisionshaveintendedandunintendedconsequences.Anorganizationisanongoingentity，andadecisionmadetodaymayhaveconsequencesfarintothefuture.Thustheskilledmanagerlookstowardthefutureconsequencesofcurrentdecisions.

01-B.SecretsofSuccessatanInterview

Thesubjectoftoday'

stalkisinterviews.

Thekeywordsherearepreparationandconfidence，whichwillcarryyoufar.

Doyourhomeworkfirst.

Findoutallyoucanaboutthejobyouareapplyingforandtheorganizationyouhopetoworkfor.

ManyoftheemployersIinterviewedmadethesamecriticismofcandidates."

Theyhavenoideawhatthedaytodayworkofthejobbringsabout.Theyhavevaguenotionsof"

furtheringthecompany'

sprospects’orof'

servingthecommunity'

，buthavenevertakenthetroubletofindouttheactualtaskstheywillberequiredtodo.”

Donotletthisbesaidofyou.Itshowsanunattractiveindifferencetoyouremployerandtoyourjob.

Takethetimetoputyourselfintotheinterviewer'

splace.Hewantssomebodywhoishard-workingwithapleasantpersonalityandarealinterestinthejob.

Anythingthatyoufindoutabouttheprospectiveemployercanbeusedtoyouradvantageduringtheinterviewtoshowthatyouhavebotheredtomastersomefactsaboutthepeoplewhoyouhopetoworkfor.

Writedown（andremember）thequestionsyouwanttoasktheinterviewer（s）sothatyouarenotspeechlesswhentheyinviteyourquestions.Makesurethatholidaysandpayarenotthefirstthingsyouaskabout.Ifallyourquestionshavebeenansweredduringtheinterview，reply：

"

Infact，Ididhaveseveralquestions，butyouhavealreadyansweredthemall.”

Donotbeafraidtoaskforclarificationofsomethingthathasbeensaidduringtheinterviewifyouwanttobesurewhatwasimplied，butdobepolite.

Justbeforeyougototheinterview，lookagainattheoriginaladvertisementthatyouanswered，anycorrespondencefromyourprospectiveemployer，photocopiesofyourletterofapplicationorapplicationformandyourresume.

Thenyouwillrememberwhatyousaidandwhattheywant.Thisisveryimportantifyouhaveappliedformanyjobsinashorttimeasitiseasytobecomeconfusedandgiveanimpressionofinefficiency.

Makesureyouknowwhereandwhenyouhavetoreportfortheinterview.Gotothebuilding（butnotinsidetheoffice）adayortwobefore，ifnecessary，tofindouthowlongthejourneytakesandwhereexactlytheplaceis.

Aimtoarrivefiveortenminutesearlyfortheactualinterview，thenyouwillhavealittletimeinhandandyouwillnotpanicifyouaredelayed.Youstartatadisadvantageifyouarriveworriedandtenminuteslate.

Dressinclean，neat，conservativeclothes.NowisNOTthetimetoexperimentwiththepunklookor（girls）towearlow-cutdresseswithminiskirts.Makesurethatyourshoes，handsandhair（andteeth）arecleanandneat.

Havetheletterinvitingyouforaninterviewreadytoshowincasethereisanydifficultyincommunication.

Youmayfindyourselffacingoneinterviewerorapanel.Thelatterisfarmoreintimidating，butdonotletitworryyoutoomuch.Theinterviewerwillprobablyhaveatableinfrontofhim/her.Donotputyourthingsorarmsonit.

Ifyouhaveabagoracase，putitonthefloorbesideyourchair.Donotclutchitnervouslyor，worsestill，dropit，spillingeverything.

Shakehandsiftheintervieweroffershishandfirst.Thereislittlelikelihoodthatapaneloffivewantstogothoughtheprocessofallshakinghandswithyouinturn.Soyoudonotbeupsetifnooneoffers.

Shakehandsfirmly--aweakhandsuggestsaweakpersonality，andacrushinggripisobviouslypainful.Donotdropthehandassoonasyourshastoucheditasthiswillseemtoshowyoudonotliketheotherperson.

Speakpolitelyandnaturallyevenifyouarefeelingshy.Thinkbeforeyouansweranyquestions.

Ifyoucannotunderstand，ask：

Wouldyoumindrephrasingthequestion，please?

Thequestionwillthenberepeatedindifferentwords.

Ifyouarenotdefinitelyacceptedorturneddownonthespot，ask：

WhenmayIexpecttoheartheresultsofthisinterview?

Ifyoudoreceivealetterofferingyouthejob，youmustreplybyletter（keepaphotocopy）assoonaspossible.

Goodluck!

02-A.BlackHoles

Whatisablackhole?

Well，it'

sdifficulttoanswerthisquestion，sincethetermswewouldnormallyusetodescribeascientificphenomenonareinadequatehere.Astronomersandscientiststhinkthatablackholeisaregionofspace（notathing）intowhichmatterhasfallenandfromwhichnothingcanescape?

notevenlight.Sowecan'

tseeablackhole.Ablackholeexertsastronggravitationalpullandyetithasnomatter.Itisonlyspace--orsowethink.Howcanthishappen?

Thetheoryisthatsomestarsexplodewhentheirdensityincreasestoaparticularpoint；

theycollapseandsometimesasupernovaoccurs.Fromearth，asupernovalookslikeaverybrightlightintheskywhichshineseveninthedaytime.Supernovaewerereportedbyastronomersintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.SomepeoplethinkthattheStarofBethlehemcouldhavebeenasupernova.ThecollapseofastarmayproduceaWhiteDwarforaneutronstar--astar，whosematterissodensethatitcontinuallyshrinksbytheforceofitsowngravity.Butifthestarisverylarge（muchbiggerthanoursun）thisprocessofshrinkingmaybesointensethatablackholeresults.Imaginetheearthreducedtothesizeofamarble，butstillhavingthesamemassandastrongergravitationalpull，andyouhavesomeideaoftheforceofablackhole.Anymatterneartheblackholeissuckedin.Itisimpossibletosaywhathappensinsideablackhole.Scientistshavecalledtheboundaryareaaroundtheholethe"

eventhorizon."

Weknownothingabouteventswhichhappenonceobjectspassthisboundary.Butint