语言学教案Chapter5MeaningWord格式.docx

语言学教案Chapter5MeaningWord格式.docx

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Note:

Connotationanddenotationinphilosophy

*****TION（内涵）

*****ION（外延）

E.g.human

Thematicmeaning（主题意义）

Question:

Howtoexplainthemeaningofawordintheconceptualmeaning?

E.g.DESK

1）topointtoadeskdirectly

2）todescribeitas“apieceoffurniturewithaflattopandfourlegs,atwhichonereadsandwrites.

3）toparaphraseitas“adeskisakindoftable,whichhasdrawers”

4）togivetheChineseequivalent书桌

Problems:

Theconcretethingpointedatdiffersfromtheabstractconceptbehindthething.Theobjectpointedatdoesnotdirectlycorrespondtotheconcept.

*****

Semantictriangleconcept

wordthing

C.f.Sensereference

1）Sense:

theabstractpropertiesofanentity――concept――connotationReference:

theconcreteentitieshavingtheseentities――denotation

2）Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.

E.g.grammaticalwordslikebut,if,and

Sense

Reference

Threekindsofsenserelations:

samenessrelation,oppositenessrelation,and

inclusivenessrelation

*****Y:

thesamenessrelation

Stylisticdifference

E.g.LittleTom___________atoybear.c.f.buypurchase

Connotativedifference.

E.g.“I’mthrifty.Youareeconomical.Andheisstingy.”

Dialecticaldifference

E.g.c.f.autumnfall

Antonymy:

theoppositenessrelation

（1）Gradableantonymy

E.g.good:

bad,long:

short,big:

small

gradable---comparativeandsuperlativedegree;

lexicalization

E.g.goodbad

gradedagainstdifferentnorms---noabsolutecriterion

E.g.c.f.abigcarasmallplane

onememberofapair,usuallythetermforthehigherdegree,servesasthecovertermE.g.Howoldareyou?

C.f.Unmarkedmarked

Unmarked:

thetermismoreoftenused

Marked:

thetermislessused,odd,orunusual

（2）Complementaryantonymy

E.galive:

dead,male:

female

NOTE1:

Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialof

onealsomeanstheassertionoftheother.

NOTE2:

Nocomparativeorsuperlativedegreesareallowed.

E.g.alive,dead,半死不活

*JohnismoredeadthanMary.

C.f.Johnismoremadthanstupid.

C.f.Gradableandcomplementary

1.Thedifferencebetweenthegradableandthecomplementaryissomewhatsimilarto

thatbetweenthecontraryandthecontradictory.

Inlogic,apropositionisthecontraryofanotherifitisimpossibleforbothtotrue,or

false.

E.g.Thecoffeeishot.

Thecoffeeiscold.

Apropositionisthecontradictoryofanotherifitisimpossibleforbothtobetrue,or

E.g.Thisisamalecat.

Thisisafemalecat.

b

aab

2.Thenormincomplementaryisabsolute.

E.g.malefemale

3.Thereisnocovertermforthetwomembersofapair.

E.g.Isitaboyoragirl?

*Howmaleisit?

Exception:

truefalse（Pp167）

（3）Converseantonymy

E.g.buy:

sell,lend:

borrow

XbuyssomethingfromY.==YsellssomethingtoX.

*****NAL*****ES

*****Y

*****DINATE

*****S

CO-*****S

flower

AUTO-*****

living

animal

tiger…

carnation

*****C*****S/*****C*****NTS:

semanticunitssmallerthanthemeaningofaword.（Pp170）

E.g.boy:

HUMAN,YOUNG,MALE

woman:

HUMAN,ADULT,FEMALE

YOUNG:

～ADULT

FEMALE:

～MALE

E.g.father=PARENT（x,y）MALE（x）

mother=PARENT（x,y）～MALE（x）

son=CHILD（x,y）MALE（x）

die=BECOME（x,（～ALIVE（x）））

kill=CAUSE（x,（BECOME（y,（～ALIVE（y）））））

murder=INTEND（x,（CAUSE（x,（BECOME（y,（～ALIVE（y）））））））

Synonyms:

wordsorexpressionswiththesamesemanticcomponentsE.g.bachelor,unmarriedman:

HUMAN,ADULT,*****ED

Antonyms:

wordswithcontrastingsemanticcomponents

E.g.coldhot,givetake

Hyponyms:

wordswhichhaveallthesemanticcomponentsofanotherE.g.boygirlarehyponymsofchild

Senserelationsbetweensentences:

E.g.1.a.*JohnkilledBillbutBilldidn’tdie.

b.*JohnkilledBillbuthewasnotthecauseofBill’sdeath.

c.*JohnmurderedBillwithoutintendingto.

Entailment

E.g.a.JohnkilledBill.

b.Billdied.

Difficulties

1）Polysemouswordswillhavedifferentsetsofsemanticcomponents.

2）Thedifferencebetweenthesemanticcomponentsdiffers.

C.f.MALEandFEMALE（absolute）ADULTandYOUNG（relative）

boyandman（clear-cut）girlandwoman（vague）

3）Theremaybewordswhosesemanticcomponentsaredifficulttoascertain.Question:

Howtoexpressthesemanticfeatures?

*****GUAGE（原语言）:

alanguageusedfortalkingaboutanotherlanguage

1）Thesentencemeaningisnotmerelyasumofwordmeaning,anditisrelatedtowordorder.

E.g.a.Themanchasedthedog.

b.Thedogchasedtheman.

2）Sentenceshavethematicmeaning.

E.g.a.I’vealreadyseenthatfilm.

b.ThatfilmI’vealreadyseen.

3）Thesentencemeaningisconnectedwithitssyntacticstructure.

E.g.ThesonofPharaoh’sdaughteristhedaughterofPharaoh’sson.

Principleof**********TYgrammaticalclassificationdictionaryidiosyncraticinformation

Semantictheorysemanticinformation

Dictionary:

toprovidethegrammaticalclassificationandsemanticinformationof

words

Grammaticalclassification

Grammaticalmarkers/syntacticmarkers

Systematicinformation

Systemicpart―Semanticmarkers:

（Male）,（Female）,（Human）,（Animal）Idiosyncraticinformation―Distinguishers（辨义成分）

E.g.bachelor

a.[whohasnevermarried];

b.[youngknightsservingunderthestandardofanotherknight];

c.[whohasthefirstorlowestacademicdegree];

d.[youngfursealwhenwithoutamateduringthebreedingtime].

Projectionrules:

responsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether

S

NP

Selectionrestrictions

Problems

1.Thedistinctionbetweensemanticmarkeranddistinguisherisnotveryclear.E.g.（Young）

2.Thecollocationofwordsmaynotbeaccountedforbygrammaticalmarkers,semanticmarkersorselectionrestrictions.

E.g.a.Hesaidhellotothenurseandshegreetedback.

b.Mycousinisamalenurse.

c.?

Mycousinisafemalenurse.

3.Theuseofsemanticmarkerslike（Human）,（Male）and（Adult）,iselementsofanartificialmeta-language.

sentencemeaning

*****TIONALLOGIC（命题逻辑）/*****TIONAL*****S（命题演算）/*****IAL*****S（句子演算）:

proposition≈sentencemeaning

Truthvalue:

truthorfalse

Predicatelogic（Pp180）

p（simpleproposition）

one-placeconnective:

negation～or

two-placeconnective:

conjunction

disjunction∨

implication

equivalence≡or

Connectiveconjunction:

similartotheEnglish“and”

Connectivedisjunction:

similartotheEnglish“or”

Connectiveimplication/conditionalimplication:

correspondstotheEnglish“if…then”Connectiveequivalence/biconditional:

correspondsto“iff…then”

C.f.Antonyms“not”

Withcomplementaryantonyms,thedenialofoneistheassertionoftheother.Withgradable,thatisnotnecessarilythecase.

E.g.Johnisn’told.

Johnisold.

C.f.Conjunction“and”

Conjunction

E.g.Hemissedthetrainandarrivedlate.

“And”

E.g.Hearrivedlateandmissedthetrain.

*Hemissedthetrainandarrivedlate.

C.f.Implication“if…then”

Implication

E.g.IfheisanEnglishman,hespeaksEnglish.

Ifsnowiswhite,grassisgreen.

E.g.Ifsnowisblack,grassisgreen.

“If…then”

E.g.?

*Ifsnowisblack,grassisgreen.

Insum,propositionallogic,concernedwiththesemanticrelationbetweenpropositions,treatsasimplepropositionasanunanalyzedwhole.

E.g.Allmenarerational.

Socratesisaman.

Therefore,Socratesisrational.

*****TELOGIC/*****TE*****USstudiestheinternalstructureofsimplepropositions.

HowtoanalyzeSocratesisaman?

Argument（主目）:

atermwhichreferstosomeentityaboutwhichastatementisbeingmade

Predicate（谓词）:

atermwhichascribessomeproperty,orrelation,totheentity,orentities,referredto

Socratesistheargument,andmanisthepredicate.

Token:

M（s）

Asimplepropositionisseenasafunction（函数）ofitsargument.Thetruthvalueofapropositionvarieswiththeargument.

M（s）=1,M（c）=0

E.g.JohnlovesMary.L（j,m）

JohngaveMaryabook.G（j,m,b）

kill:

CAUSE（x,（BECOME（y,（～ALIVE（y）））））

C（x,（B（y,（～A（y）））））

Allmenarerational.

1.AllistheuniversalquantifierandsymbolizedbyanupturnedA―inlogic.

2.Theargumentmendoesnotrefertoanyparticularentity,whichisknownasavariableandsymbolizedasx,y.

Notation:

x（M（x）R（x））

“Forallx,itisthecasethat,ifxisaman,thenxisrational.”

Somemenareclever.

SomeistheexistentialquantifierandsymbolizedbyareversedE―

x（M（x）C（x））

C.f.Universalquantifierexistentialquantifier

1.Quantifiers

2.Implicationconnective

E.g.

Thereisnomanwhoisnotrational.Notation:

x（M（xR